CONTEMPORARY METHODOLOGICAL AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS IN THE PSYCHOLOGY OF RELIGION
Keywords:
Psychology of Religion; Neuroscience; Religious Coping; Cross-Cultural Psychology; Mixed Methods.Abstract
Objective: To review contemporary theoretical approaches and methodological strategies in the psychology of religion and identify emerging research directions. Data Sources: Recent peer-reviewed literature, theoretical works, and empirical studies on religion, spirituality, cognition, neuroscience, and mental health were reviewed. Study Selection: Studies were selected based on their relevance to conceptual advancements, methodological developments, and interdisciplinary contributions to the psychology of religion. Summary of Contents: The review discusses major conceptual models, including cognitive, attachment, existential, and neuroscientific perspectives, alongside quantitative, qualitative, and mixed-methods approaches. It also highlights cross-cultural research, digital religion, religious coping, and future priorities for progressing the field. Conclusion: The psychology of religion is steadily adopting interdisciplinary and culturally inclusive approaches. Subsequent studies should emphasize methodological pluralism, longitudinal designs, and integration of neuroscience and digital contexts to better understand religious and spiritual experiences.
References
Alkhouri, K.I., 2024. The role of artificial intelligence in the study of the psychology of religion. Religions, Vol.15 No. 3, pp.290.https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15030290
Anjum, G. and Aziz, M., 2024. Advancing equity in cross-cultural psychology: embracing diverse epistemologies and fostering collaborative practices. Frontiers in psychology, Vol. 15, pp.1368663.https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1368663
Arystanbaeva, A. and Kasimova, Z., 2025. Research on religiosity and spirituality in the context of interdisciplinary integration. JETE–JОURNAL OF PHILOSOPHY, RELIGIOUS AND CULTURAL STUDIES, Vol. 150 No.1, pp.93-106. https://doi.org/10.32523/3080-1281-2025-150-1-93-106
Barrett, J.L., 2007. Cognitive science of religion: What is it and why is it?. Religion Compass, Vol.1 No.6, pp.768-786. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-8171.2007.00042.x
Belzen, J.A. and Hood, R.W., 2006. Methodological issues in the psychology of religion: Toward another paradigm?. The Journal of psychology, Vol. 140 No.1, pp.5-28.https://doi.org/10.3200/jrlp.140.1.5-28
Benson, P. (2004). Emerging Themes in Research on Adolescent Spiritual and Religious Development. Applied Developmental Science, Vol. 8 No.1, pp.47-50. https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532480xads0801_6
Bhugra, D., and Becker, M. A. (2005). Migration, cultural bereavement and cultural identity. PubMed, Vol. 4No.1, pp.18–24. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16633496
Blume, A. W., Diop, I. S. (2025). Decolonial psychology: Inherently Indigenous and globally centered. American Psychologist, Vol. 80 No.8, pp.1285-1296. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0001532
Bradshaw, M., Ellison, C. G., and Marcum, J. P. (2010). Attachment to God, Images of God, and Psychological Distress in a Nationwide Sample of Presbyterians. International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, Vol. 20 No.2, pp.130-147. https://doi.org/10.1080/10508611003608049
Carr, D. R., King, P. E., and Meier, A. M. (2014). Purpose and Spirituality: Exploring the Role of Fidelity in Diverse Adolescents. Journal of Youth Development, Vol. 9 No. 2, pp.5-15. https://doi.org/10.5195/jyd.2014.56
Carvour, H. M., Radke, A. K., and French, N. (2025). A review of the neuroscience of religion: an overview of the field, its limitations, and future interventions. Frontiers in Neuroscience, Vol. 19, pp.1587794-1587794. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2025.1587794
Chen, Y., and VanderWeele, T. J. (2018). Associations of Religious Upbringing With Subsequent Health and Well-Being From Adolescence to Young Adulthood: An Outcome-Wide Analysis. American Journal of Epidemiology, Vol. 187 No. 11, pp.2355-2364. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwy142
Cheng, C., and Ying, W. (2023). A meta-analytic review of the associations between dimensions of religious coping and psychological symptoms during the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic. Frontiers in Psychiatry, Vol. 14, 1097598-1097598. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1097598
Cherniak, A. D., Mikulincer, M., Shaver, P. R., and Granqvist, P. (2020). Attachment theory and religion. Current Opinion in Psychology, Vol. 40, pp.126-130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2020.08.020
Çınaroğlu, M. (2023). Religion, spirituality, mental Health and wellbeing; A Review. Dergi Park (Istanbul University). https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/dinveinsan/issue/81292/1326205
Coyle, A. (2008). Qualitative Methods and ‘the (Partly) Ineffable’ in Psychological Research on Religion and Spirituality. Qualitative Research in Psychology, Vol. 5 No. 1, pp.56-67. https://doi.org/10.1080/14780880701863583
Cragun, R. T., Rabbia, H. H., Urstad, S. S., and Beyer, P. (2025). Measuring Nonreligion as Absence: Testing Various Approaches. Secularism and Nonreligion, Vol. 14, pp.6-6. https://doi.org/10.5334/snr.212
Davis, E. B., Lacey, E. K., Heydt, E. J., LaBouff, J. P., Barker, S. B., Elk, M. van, and Ladd, K. L. (2022). Sixty years of studying the sacred: Auditing and advancing the psychology of religion and spirituality. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, Vol.16 No.1, pp.7-19. https://doi.org/10.1037/rel0000485
DeHaan, L., Yonker, J. E., and Affholter, C. (2011). More Than Enjoying the Sunset: Conceptualization and Measurement of Religiosity for Adolescents and Emerging Adults and Its Implications for Developmental Inquiry. ˜The œJournal of Psychology and Christianity, Vol. 30 No.3, pp. 184-196. https://www.questia.com/library/journal/1P3-2542419081/more-than-enjoying-the-sunset-conceptualization-and
Dein, S., Cook, C. C. H., and Koenig, H. G. (2012). Religion, Spirituality, and Mental Health. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, Vol. 200 No. 10, pp.852-855. https://doi.org/10.1097/nmd.0b013e31826b6dle
Demmrich, S. (2024). Studying Religiosity Beyond (Western) Christianity: an Empirical-Psychological Perspective and its Implications. Journal of Empirical Theology, Vol. 38 No.1, pp.54-73. https://doi.org/10.1163/15709256-20240011
Desai, K. M., and Pargäment, K. I. (2013). Predictors of Growth and Decline Following Spiritual Struggles. International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, Vol. 25 No.1, pp. 42-56. https://doi.org/10.1080/10508619.2013.847697
Elk, M. van, and Alemán, A. (2016). Brain mechanisms in religion and spirituality: An integrative predictive processing framework. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, Vol. 73, pp. 359-378. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.12.031
Emmons, R. A., and Paloutzian, R. F. (2002). The Psychology of Religion. Annual Review of Psychology, Vol. 54 No.1, pp. 377-402. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.54.101601.145024
Ergen, Y. (2023). Framing the Study of Digital Religion: Waves of Academic Research, Theoretical Approaches and Themes. Medya ve Din Araştırmaları Dergisi, Vol. 6 No.2, pp.137-166. https://doi.org/10.47951/mediad.1363608
Exline, J. J., Pargäment, K. I., Wilt, J. A., Pait, K. C., and Schutt, W. A. (2024). Research on spiritual struggles: A brief snapshot focusing on new horizons. Spiritual Care, Vol. 13 No. 2, pp.103-114. https://doi.org/10.1515/spircare-2022-0063
Forman, R. K. C., and Wald‐Fuhrmann, M. (2024). The Body of “the Body of Christ”: An Introduction to Hyperscanning Research and a Discussion of Its Possible Implications for Understanding Social Experiences During Religious Gatherings. Pastoral Psychology, Vol. 73 No.3, pp.379-394. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11089-024-01142-x
Fortuin, N. P. M. (2021). Religion, Health and Well-Being in Later Life. NTT Journal for Theology and the Study of Religion, Vol. 75 No.1, pp.95-119. https://doi.org/10.5117/ntt2021.1.006.fort
Frederiks, M. (2015). Religion, Migration and Identity. Mission Studies, Vol. 32 No.2, pp.181-202. https://doi.org/10.1163/15733831-12341400
Garssen, B., Visser, A., and Pool, G. (2020). Does Spirituality or Religion Positively Affect Mental Health? Meta-analysis of Longitudinal Studies. International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, Vol. 31 No.1, pp.04-20. https://doi.org/10.1080/10508619.2020.1729570
González, R., Carvacho, H., and Jiménez‐Moya, G. (2021). Psychology and Indigenous People. Annual Review of Psychology, Vol. 73 No.1, pp.431-459. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-012921-045304
González-Rivera, J. A., and Álvarez-Alatorre, Y. (2025). Religious and Spiritual Struggles and Mental Health Outcomes in Puerto Rico. Interacciones Revista de Avances En Psicología. https://doi.org/10.24016/2025.v11.474
Granqvist, P., Mikulincer, M., and Shaver, P. R. (2009). Religion as Attachment: Normative Processes and Individual Differences. Personality and Social Psychology Review, Vol. 14 No.1, pp.49-59. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868309348618
Haidar, A., Nwosisi, E., and Burnett‐Zeigler, I. (2023). The Role of Religion and Spirituality in Adapting Mindfulness-Based Interventions for Black American Communities: A Scoping Review. Mindfulness, Vol. 14 No.8, pp.1852-1867. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-023-02194-5
Hamdi, H., Hamdanah, H., Hartati, Z., and Huda, A. A. S. (2025). Trends and Developments in Religious Psychology Research Methods: A Bibliometric Study of SCOPUS Publications (2015–2025). Al Ulya Jurnal Pendidikan Islam, Vol. 10 No.2, pp. 240-264. https://doi.org/10.32665/alulya.v10i2.4945
Ho, D. Y. F., and Ho, R. (2007). Measuring Spirituality and Spiritual Emptiness: Toward Ecumenicity and Transcultural Applicability. Review of General Psychology, Vol. 11 No.1, pp.62-74. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.11.1.62
Houran, J., and Schofield, M. (2023). Championing “Exchange and Cooperation” Efforts in Frontier Science: Epilogue to the Special Issue. Journal of Scientific Exploration, Vol. 37 No.4, pp. 776-786. https://doi.org/10.31275/20233207
King, K., and Hemming, P. (2012). Exploring Multiple Religious Identities through Mixed Qualitative Methods. Fieldwork in Religion, Vol. 7 No. 1, pp.29-47. https://doi.org/10.1558/firn.v7i1.29
Kor, A., Pirutinsky, S., Mikulincer, M., Shoshani, A., and Miller, L. (2019). A Longitudinal Study of Spirituality, Character Strengths, Subjective Well-Being, and Prosociality in Middle School Adolescents. Frontiers in Psychology, Vol. 10, pp.377-377. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00377
Lindahl, J. R., Fisher, N. E., Cooper, D. J., Rosen, R. K., and Britton, W. B. (2017). The varieties of contemplative experience: A mixed-methods study of meditation-related challenges in Western Buddhists. PLoS ONE, Vol. 12 No.5. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0176239
Longo, G. S., Bray, B. C., and Kim‐Spoon, J. (2017). Profiles of adolescent religiousness using latent profile analysis: Implications for psychopathology. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, Vol. 35 No.1, pp. 91-105. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjdp.12183
Marei, F. G. (2024). God’s Influencers: How Social Media Users Shape Religion and Pious Self-Fashioning. Journal of Religion Media and Digital Culture, Vol. 13 No.2, pp.143-172. https://doi.org/10.1163/21659214-bja10140
McCauley, R. N. (2018). Twenty-five years in: Landmark empirical findings in the cognitive science of religion. Filosofia Unisinos, Vol. 19 No.3. https://doi.org/10.4013/fsu.2018.193.07
McNamara, P., and Grafman, J. (2024). Advances in brain and religion studies: a review and synthesis of recent representative studies. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, Vol. 18, pp.1495565.
Miller, L., Balodis, I. M., McClintock, C. H., Xu, J., Lacadie, C., Sinha, R., and Potenza, M. N. (2018). Neural Correlates of Personalized Spiritual Experiences. Cerebral Cortex, Vol. 29 No.6, pp. 2331-2338. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhy102
Moreira‐Almeida, A. (2013). Religion and health: the more we know the more we need to know. World Psychiatry, Vol. 12 No.1, pp.37-38. https://doi.org/10.1002/wps.20009
Mosurinjohn, S., Roseman, L., and Girn, M. (2023). Psychedelic-induced mystical experiences: An interdisciplinary discussion and critique. Frontiers in Psychiatry, Vol. 14, pp.1077311-1077311. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1077311
Mulavu, M., Seale, D., Seale, J. P., Harris, S. K., Matenga, T. F. L., Mugode, M., Sakanya, S., Tirrell, J. M., Chimponda, P., Mutale, W., Sampa, M., and Mweemba, O. (2026). Flourishing amidst adversity: Exploring mechanisms of change in a spiritually based character strengths intervention using the PERMA framework in Zambia. Journal of Psychology in Africa, Vol. 36 No. 2, pp.219-230. https://doi.org/10.32604/jpa.2026.071580
Murphy, J. J., Jones, F. W., Nigbur, D., and Gee, K. (2022). Living in a world with God: An interpretative phenomenological exploration of the religious experiences of five Baptists in Britain. Europe’s Journal of Psychology, Vol. 18 No. 2, pp.154-167. https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.3119
Nelson, J. M., and Slife, B. D. (2012). Theoretical and Epistemological Foundations. In Oxford University Press eBooks (pp. 21-35). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199729920.013.0002
Nelson, J. M., and Slife, B. D. (2024). Theoretical and Epistemological Foundations. In Oxford University Press eBooks (pp. 22-48). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190905538.013.2
Norenzayan, A., Shariff, A., Gervais, W. M., Willard, A. K., McNamara, R. A., Slingerland, E., and Henrich, J. (2014). The cultural evolution of prosocial religions. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 39. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0140525x14001356
Pak, J. (2020a). Integrating Psychology, Religion, and Culture. Brill Research Perspectives in Religion and Psychology, Vol. 2 No.4, pp.01-86. https://doi.org/10.1163/25897128-12340006
Pak, J. (2020b). Integrating Psychology, Religion, and Culture (pp. 1–86). https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004449640_002
Paloutzian, R. F. (2009). Psychology, The Human Sciences, And Religion. In Oxford University Press eBooks (pp. 236–252). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199543656.003.0016
Paloutzian, R. F. (2017). Psychology of Religion in the World. Revista Pistis Praxis, Vol. 9 No.1, pp.15-15. https://doi.org/10.7213/2175-1838.09.001.ds01
Pargäment, K. I. (2023b). From Research to Practice: Three Waves in the Evolution of the Psychology of Religion and Spirituality. DergiPark (Istanbul University), Vol. 8 No.3, pp.207-225. https://doi.org/10.37898/spc.2023.8.3.191
Pargäment, K. I., and Abu‐Raiya, H. (2007). A decade of research on the Psychology of religion and coping: Things we assumed and lessons we learned. Psyke and Logos, Vol. 28 No.2, pp.25-25. https://doi.org/10.7146/pl.v28i2.8398
Pargäment, K. I., and Lomax, J. W. (2013). Understanding and addressing religion among people with mental illness. World Psychiatry, Vol. 12 No.1, pp.26-32. https://doi.org/10.1002/wps.20005
Park, C. L., Masters, K. S., Salsman, J. M., Wachholtz, A., Clements, A. D., Salmoirago‐Blotcher, E., Trevino, K. M., and Wischenka, D. M. (2016). Advancing our understanding of religion and spirituality in the context of behavioral medicine. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, Vol. 40 No.1, pp.3951. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10865-016-9755-5
Park, S. Y., Do, B., Yourell, J., Hermer, J., and Huberty, J. (2024). Digital Methods for the Spiritual and Mental Health of Generation Z: Scoping Review. Interactive Journal of Medical Research, 13. https://doi.org/10.2196/48929
Pearce, L. D., Foster, E. M., and Hardie, J. H. (2013). A Person‐Centered Examination of Adolescent Religiosity Using Latent Class Analysis. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, Vol. 52 No.1, pp.57-79. https://doi.org/10.1111/jssr.12001
Plante, T. G., Schwartz, G. E., Exline, J. J., Park, C. L., Paloutzian, R. F., Seitz, R. J., and Angel, H. (2023). Human interaction with the divine, the sacred, and the deceased: topics that warrant increased attention by psychologists. Current Psychology, Vol. 42 No.36, pp.31961-31975. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-022-04226-0
Porter, S. L., Baehr, J., Porter, T., and Roberts, R. C. (2022). On the Integration of Positive Psychology and the Psychology of Religion/Spirituality: Logical, Normative, and Methodological Questions, pp. 37-51. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-10274-5_3
Ramsay, J. E., Tong, E. M. W., Chowdhury, A., and Ho, M. R. (2018). Teleological explanation and positive emotion serially mediate the effect of religion on well‐being. Journal of Personality, Vol. 87 No. 3, pp.676-689. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12425
Rim, J. I., Ojeda, J. C., Svob, C., Kayser, J., Drews, E., Kim, Y., Tenke, C. E., Skipper, J., and Weissman, M. M. (2019). Current Understanding of Religion, Spirituality, and Their Neurobiological Correlates. Harvard Review of Psychiatry, Vol. 27 No. 5, pp.303-316. https://doi.org/10.1097/hrp.0000000000000232
Rim, J. I., Ojeda, J. C., Svob, C., Kayser, J., Drews, E., Kim, Y., Tenke, C. E., Skipper, J., and Weissman, M. M. (2020). Current Understanding of Religion, Spirituality, and Their Neurobiological Correlates. https://doi.org/10.31219/osf.io/nrdxv
Russo-Netzer, P., and Icekson, T. (2026). Attachment to God and meaning in life: the role of synchronicity awareness among ultra-Orthodox and secular individuals. Frontiers in Psychology, Vol. 17, pp.1609435–1609435. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1609435
Scott, M. J., Johnson, K. A., Okun, M. A., and Cohen, A. B. (2019). The Road Not Taken: Fostering Research on the Psychology of Religiosity and Spirituality via Underused Representative, Open-Access Datasets (ROADs). International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, Vol 29 No.3, pp.204-221. https://doi.org/10.1080/10508619.2019.1596000
Sharp, C. A., Davis, E. B., George, K., Cuthbert, A., Zahl, B. P., Davis, D. E., Hook, J. N., and Aten, J. D. (2019). Measures of God representations: Theoretical framework and critical review. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, Vol. 13 No.3, pp.340-357. https://doi.org/10.1037/rel0000257
Stoppa, T. M., and Lefkowitz, E. S. (2010). Longitudinal Changes in Religiosity Among Emerging Adult College Students. Journal of Research on Adolescence, Vol. 20 No.1, pp.23-38. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2009.00630.x
Surbakti, S. S. B., Harahap, R., and Hasanah, U. (2024). Future perspectives on the islamic personality model: Integrating spiritual, moral, intellectual, social, personal, and behavioral dimensions for holistic development. Journal on Islamic Studies, Vol. 1 No.1, pp.17-35. https://doi.org/10.35335/7adqms82
Ting, R. S. K., Ansloos, J., Lee, B. O., Gone, J. P., and Kirmayer, L. J. (2025). Decolonizing mental health practice through traditional healing frameworks: Insights from Canada, China, Singapore, and the United States. American Psychologist, Vol. 80 No.4, pp.630.
Vail, K. E., Rothschild, Z. K., Weise, D., Solomon, S., Pyszczynski, T., and Greenberg, J. (2009). A Terror Management Analysis of the Psychological Functions of Religion. Personality and Social Psychology Review, Vol. 14 No.1, pp.84-94. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868309351165
Viftrup, D. T. (2017). Danish Pentecostals benefitting from religiously integrated group Psychotherapy? A follow up study. University of Southern Denmark Research Portal (University of Southern Denmark). https://portal.findresearcher.sdu.dk/da/publications/e9d4c4d5-e322-4cfa-85c9-4830a1120c23
Voas, D. (2015). Religious involvement over the life course: problems of measurement and classification. Longitudinal and Life Course Studies, Vol. 6 No.2. https://doi.org/10.14301/llcs.v6i2.311
Walsh, R., Danto, D., and Sommerfeld, J. (2018). Land-Based Intervention: a Qualitative Study of the Knowledge and Practices Associated with One Approach to Mental Health in a Cree Community. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, Vol. 18 No.1, pp. 207-221. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-018-9996-3
Walter, Y., and Koenig, T. (2023). The Induction of Religious Experiences and Temporal Lobe Activation: Neuronal Source Localization Using EEG Inverse Solutions. Psych, Vol. 5 No. 4, pp. 1191-1206. https://doi.org/10.3390/psych5040079
Wang, Z., Luo, Y., Xuan, C., and Jindong, J. (2024). The twisted path to sacredness: a grounded theory study of irrational religious orientation and its psycho-sociological implications. BMC Psychology, Vol. 12 No.1, pp. 360-360. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-024-01858-8
Watts, F. (2012). Parameters and Limitations of Current Conceptualizations. In Oxford University Press eBooks (pp. 36–46). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199729920.013.0003
Watts, F. (2024). Parameters and Limitations of Current Conceptualizations. In Oxford University Press eBooks (pp. 49–68). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190905538.013.3
Weng, H. Y., Ikeda, M. P., Lewis‐Peacock, J. A., Chao, M. T., Fullwiley, D., Goldman, V., Skinner, S., Duncan, L. G., Gazzaley, A., and Hecht, F. (2020). Toward a Compassionate Intersectional Neuroscience: Increasing Diversity and Equity in Contemplative Neuroscience. Frontiers in Psychology, Vol. 11, pp. 573134-573134. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.573134
Zmigrod, L., Rentfrow, P. J., Zmigrod, S., and Robbins, T. W. (2018). Cognitive flexibility and religious disbelief. Psychological Research, Vol. 83 No. 8, pp. 1749-1759. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00426-018-1034-3
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
Copyright (c) 2026 Himalaya Tiwari, Pragati Chaturvedi
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
